The old & the new Oda tree & 2018 birra in Finfinne. (2010 Tseday in Finfinne)

Irrigation in Ethiopia.Is it really small,medium & large?

IRRIGATION CATEGORIES /CLASSIFICATION/ IN ETHIOPIA

 

 

1.    Categories of irrigation schemes:

In the Ethiopian context, the irrigation sub-sector was conventionally classified as small (less than 200ha), medium (200 to 3000ha) and large-scale (over 3000ha) schemes in the early years of its emergence. It refers only to size of land and ignores the ownership type, scales of capital, knowledge and technology involved. This customary arrangement was opted for its simplicity ,as then the large scale farms were either private company or  public owned and the small scale farms were that of farmers(private or communal).  However, that situation is consistently eroding as small scale, high capital, and knowledge intensive farms by private companies emerged; and farmers holdings started to shoot up. Furthermore, the scale of the finance, technology and management which were disguised require attention to determine the optimum coordination and management.

The other major problem is when you ,for example, present the total irrigated land area in the country per regional states as a basis for further planning and funding.the reason is as follows.In the regional states like Oromia, Afar, and the SNNP Region where farmers were either forcefully evicted/or denied their  communal/group/ and private water and land rights  for public enterprises, private farms , and  in the periods state farms were further established and expanded (during  the 'Derg' regime) the amount  of irrigated commands have relatively soared.   

However the  the share/%/ of the actual irrigated land areas owned and managed by farmers,and the benefits the local population got was insignificant.As a result,When these values are put against the regional states it  conceals the facts on the ground, and so presents as though the populations of the regions have benefited from irrigation , and wittingly implies priority of planning and funding for other regions.

  In order to overcome, this lump sum approach and investigate the concealed facts of ownership, scale of investment, and knowledge in the Oromia region, Ligdi (2003) used an alternative approach which was also very common in other countries and  the region. This recommendation was opted for and presented   as follows. 

Irrigated Agriculture is categorized into 3 major categories (Ligdi, 2003)

1.    Communal Small Holder  Irrigation Schemes
 

These small holder schemes are are constructed and developed by self –help or through projects with External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers. They are usually communal and managed by the small holder farmers themselves.

These Communal smallholder schemes Comprise of 

a.    the traditional communal Irrigation Schemes  (usually termed as Traditional Schemes) and;

b.     the Improved /”Modern”/ Communal Schemes mostly termed as Modern Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS

2.    Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by enterpreuners, individual investors (Smallholder farmers), or small or large commercial companies

3.    Public Irrigation Schemes

 These are mostly medium and large scale schemes developed/nationalized/, owned and managed by the government as commercial farms producing for export to generate foreign currency, create employment opportunities, etc..

Figure  : Irrigated land area in the different categories in Ethiopia

1.1   Communal Small Holder Irrigation Schemes

General (Major) features

These small holder schemes are dominated by self –help irrigation and Water undertakings based solely on local knowledge and skills with no or a very Low External inputs as the case is in traditional irrigation; and also includes the projects developed through External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers, and termed as Improved Small scale Irrigation, SSI schemes ,

Both the Traditional and Improved schemes are usually managed by the farmers themselves, through appropriately organized farmers user groups termed as Irrigation Water Users Associations, WUA’S.

Initial costs of small holder irrigation schemes are small, and O&M costs are relatively low.

1.1.1 Traditional irrigation schemes:

Specific  Features

• These schemes are constructed under self-help program carried out by farmers on their own initiative and and in general each scheme vary from less than 50 to 100 ha.
• The total irrigated area is estimated to be about 138,000 ha and about 572,000 farmers are involved.
• Traditional water committees, locally known as ‘water fathers’, administer the water distribution and coordinate the maintenance activities of the schemes.

•     Traditional irrigation is also very common in peri-urban areas, particularly in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, for the production of vegetables for the local market.

•      The major drawback of traditional irrigation schemes is related to unstable headworks and faulty systems of irrigation stemming from lack of technology and knowledge.
•       Simple and mostly temporary.
•       The total area irrigated under traditional irrigation as complied from master plan studies & reports of the regions is estimated to be about 64,000 ha

1.1.2   Improved /Modern/ communal irrigation schemes      (Generally termed as Modern small-scale irrigation schemes, SSIS)

These schemes use technologies for irrigating up to 200 ha and are constructed by the government/NGOs with farmer participation. (Range- 20 ha to 200 ha)

Specific Features

They are generally based on direct river diversions but they may also involve micro-dams for storage.

Example OROMIA

The Evaluation study (OIDA, 2ooo) also disclosed that rivers are the main water resource for the irrigation schemes in Oromia Region. Out of the 96 schemes, 72 schemes obtain water from rivers. The intake facilities are represented by diversion weirs. Among 96 irrigation schemes, 67 schemes are run-of -river type with diversion weirs, while pumping irrigation is operated to the limited extent.

The area equipped for irrigation in 2002 was about 48 300 ha and about 74 100 farmers were involved.

The operation and maintenance of the schemes are the responsibility of the water users, supported by the regional authorities/bureaus in charge of irrigation development and management.

Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formally established in some schemes but traditional water management dominates in most of the modern schemes.

1.2       Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes (Usually termed as  Modern private irrigation Schemes):

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by entrepreneurs, individual investors (Smallholder farmers),or small or large commercial companies

• Virtually all the early commercial farms in the 1960’s and the irrigated state farms were privately owned farms until nationalization of the rural lands/private property/  through in the mid 1970s.
•  Some of these schemes were initially privately owned until later nationalized in  coming to power  of a  socialist government and then returned by back to through privatization after disowning/abandonment

• Private investment in irrigation has recently re-emerged with the adoption of a market-based economy policy in the early 1980s.
• According Ethiopian Investment Authority 18 modern private irrigation projects are now operational.
• Accordingly, at the end of 2000, private investors had developed about 5 500 ha of irrigated farms, distributed in Afar (37 percent), Oromia (48 percent) and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) also known as the Southern Region (15 percent).
•  Built and operated by entrepreneurs, these schemes may range in size a few hectares to several  thousand hectares,
•  Depend on low- lift pumping or run-of river diversion for irrigation water abstraction.

1.3. Public Irrigation Schemes

• These schemes comprise medium- and large-scale irrigation schemes with areas of 200-3 000 ha and above 3 000 ha respectively and a total estimated area of about 97 700 ha.

•     They are constructed, owned and operated by public enterprises. These schemes are concentrated along the Awash River Course and were constructed in the 1960s-70s as either private farms or joint ventures.

•      No such schemes have been developed for the last 7-8 years up to 2004.
•       They constitute an area of about 61,000 ha
•       75% of the total is found in the Awash valley, the Blue Nile and the Wabe Shebele river basins 
•      Masonry weirs\ in some cases pump is used to abstract irrigation water.

• Conveyance & Operation is through open gravity canals.
•  Furrow irrigation scheme is the norm from water application, except in case of Fincaa sugar estate     where sprinkler is used.
•  Irrigation efficiency is low (Aswash), 40% (adequate land leveling, water control   & water  measuring devices).

About 62 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Rift Valley, while 29 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Nile basin. The remaining 9 percent is located in the Shebelli-Juba basin.

Region-wise, about 39 percent of the irrigated area is in Oromia in central Ethiopia, followed by 24 percent in Amhara in the north, 15 percent in Afar in the northeast and 12 percent in SNNPR, while the remaining 10 percent is in the other regions. Nearly 100 percent of the irrigated land is supplied from surface water, while groundwater use has just been started on a pilot scale in East Amhara. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2 percent of the irrigated area for sugar cane production by government enterprises, while localized irrigation has recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Pump irrigation by a group of farm households and private farms is practiced in some areas, while human-powered (treadle pump) irrigation has also recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Though quantitative information is not available, spate irrigation and flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country, particularly in Dire Dawa, Somali, East Amhara, and Tigray in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country.

  REFERENCES  AND LITERATURE CITED

1. Annen, Chris T. 2001. Promotion of Small-Scale Irrigation in Food Insecure Woredas of Ethiopia. Document submitted to the IDA, World Bank.
2. Aytenffisu, M. 1981. Groundwater in Ethiopia.
3. Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia. 2000/01. Agricultural sample survey, Report on Farm Management Practices of Belg Season Crops.
4. FAO. 1990. Irrigation policy and strategy in Ethiopia. Report of FAO Technical Cooperation Project TCP/ETH/8963.
5. FAO. 1994a. Studies for integrated irrigation systems - Ethiopia - Project findings and recommendations. Terminal Report of UNDP/FAO project ETH/88/001.
6. FAO. 1994b. Ethiopia: Small-scale irrigation consolidation project, Preparation report. FAO/DDC Report 59/94 ADB-ETH 48.
7. Ministry of Agriculture. 2001. The Development of Irrigation Agriculture in the Baro-Akob, Awash, Abbay, Omo-Ghibe River Basins. September 2001.
8. Ministry of Health, Disease Prevention and Control Department. 2002. AIDS in Ethiopia. Fourth Edition.
9. Ministry of Water Resources. 1996. Omo-Gibe Master Plan Studies, Water Resources Studies (main and sectoral reports).
10. Ministry of Water Resources. 1997. Baro-Akobo River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies.
11. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan (main and sectoral reports).
12. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Abbay (Nile) River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies (main and sectoral reports).
13. Ministry of Water Resources. 2000. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. July 2000.
14. Ministry of Water Resources, ITAB Consult PLC. 2001. Implementation Strategy for River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan. August 2001.
15. Water Work Design and Supervision Enterprise. 2002. Water Sector Development Program (Project ETH/98/001), Volume II-Main Report. Ministry of Water Resources.
16. Sadoff,Claudia (2005).Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth: A Water Resource Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia.  A paper presented on Evaluation Workshop at the MoWR, June 23,205,The World Bank
17. OIDA (2000).Small holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study.Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA. 2000. Finfinne
18. Etafa Emama Ligdi (2000) Discussion paper onSmall holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study. Paper presented to the  Annual Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA Evaluation Workshop September, 2000. OIDA. Finfinne.
19. Etafa Emama Ligdi  (2003),Water Harvesting: Highlights on current status and future directions in Oromia. Paper presented to the Workshop on the NGO Operations in Oromia, 17 – 18 July, 2003. OIDA. Finfinne.
20. Tesfaye Gizaw,(2004),River basin Institutions :The Ethiopian experience. Working Paper for discussion in Institutional Setup studies of the Ethiopian Nile(Abbay) Basin Project. BRL Inge’nierie-DHV-T&A. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

The promise to keep in the nostalgia for coffee: Jimma- 'Haadha Kormaa"

 The promise to keep 
in the nostalgia for coffee:
Jimma-'Haadha Kormaa'

After each night, and deep sleep

In own room, across the street or in a shop

When asking for the ‘winning brew’, that restorative elixir   

What do we feel? 
Whom do we aspire to cheer?

In craving for the black potion to surpass our vertigo

To let it go…

Where do we go?

To the kitchen, to make that magic in a pot, or

Walk to a usual spot, across the street…
where we all meet, 
somewhere quiet  ...where we all sit……..

where we wait, where a few wit , collude to cheat…?
In yearning for an uplift.

With patience…..in good spirit 
where do you go?

..... in that moment in dilemma

In yearning for an uplift, invigorating aroma –

does it evoke .... the memory of  jimma????
Intuitively; 
does it recall      .. Jimma.....Gomma...

In nostalgia of the cup – do you remember 'coocee'…'kata mudagee', or jimma

Reminiscent of the concoction,  in account of the invention 
do you acknowledge...the notion.
Jimma-Oromia was the origin..
.an african was that great geek who put the tech in motion

Reminiscent of the blend—do you recall that kush legend 

After each night, and deep sleep

Don’t we all have A long overdue promise to keep?

In the morning, At coffee time

In the afternoon, with every dime

In each drink, and every seep

Don’t we all have a promise to keep?

I think we do,

For the ethos.

With a token recollection, with a mythos, trusteeship of memory-FOR POSTERITY

I think we do, for the honor, principled integrity        

In custody of the memory, in posterity

..keeping alive the legend /myth

lets have coffee
let's have wisdom'
let's have copassion 

in all times ......in every seep

we all have a promise to keep?

 PLEASE  REMEMBER

Irrigation Categories /Classification/ in Ethiopia

IRRIGATION CATEGORIES /CLASSIFICATION/ IN ETHIOPIA

 

 

1.    Categories of irrigation schemes:

In the Ethiopian context, the irrigation sub-sector was conventionally classified as small (less than 200ha), medium (200 to 3000ha) and large-scale (over 3000ha) schemes in the early years of its emergence. It refers only to size of land and ignores the ownership type, scales of capital, knowledge and technology involved. This customary arrangement was opted for its simplicity ,as then the large scale farms were either private company or  public owned and the small scale farms were that of farmers(private or communal).  However, that situation is consistently eroding as small scale, high capital, and knowledge intensive farms by private companies emerged; and farmers holdings started to shoot up. Furthermore, the scale of the finance, technology and management which were disguised require attention to determine the optimum coordination and management.

The other major problem is when you ,for example, present the total irrigated land area in the country per regional states as a basis for further planning and funding.the reason is as follows.In the regional states like Oromia, Afar, and the SNNP Region where farmers were either forcefully evicted/or denied their  communal/group/ and private water and land rights  for public enterprises, private farms , and  in the periods state farms were further established and expanded (during  the 'Derg' regime) the amount  of irrigated commands have relatively soared.   

However the  the share/%/ of the actual irrigated land areas owned and managed by farmers,and the benefits the local population got was insignificant.As a result,When these values are put against the regional states it  conceals the facts on the ground, and so presents as though the populations of the regions have benefited from irrigation , and wittingly implies priority of planning and funding for other regions.

  In order to overcome, this lump sum approach and investigate the concealed facts of ownership, scale of investment, and knowledge in the Oromia region, Ligdi (2003) used an alternative approach which was also very common in other countries and  the region. This recommendation was opted for and presented   as follows. 

Irrigated Agriculture is categorized into 3 major categories (Ligdi, 2003)

1.    Communal Small Holder  Irrigation Schemes
 

These small holder schemes are are constructed and developed by self –help or through projects with External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers. They are usually communal and managed by the small holder farmers themselves.

These Communal smallholder schemes Comprise of 

a.    the traditional communal Irrigation Schemes  (usually termed as Traditional Schemes) and;

b.     the Improved /”Modern”/ Communal Schemes mostly termed as Modern Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS

2.    Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by enterpreuners, individual investors (Smallholder farmers), or small or large commercial companies

3.    Public Irrigation Schemes

 These are mostly medium and large scale schemes developed/nationalized/, owned and managed by the government as commercial farms producing for export to generate foreign currency, create employment opportunities, etc..

Figure  : Irrigated land area in the different categories in Ethiopia

1.1   Communal Small Holder Irrigation Schemes

General (Major) features

These small holder schemes are dominated by self –help irrigation and Water undertakings based solely on local knowledge and skills with no or a very Low External inputs as the case is in traditional irrigation; and also includes the projects developed through External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers, and termed as Improved Small scale Irrigation, SSI schemes ,

Both the Traditional and Improved schemes are usually managed by the farmers themselves, through appropriately organized farmers user groups termed as Irrigation Water Users Associations, WUA’S.

Initial costs of small holder irrigation schemes are small, and O&M costs are relatively low.

1.1.1 Traditional irrigation schemes:

Specific  Features

• These schemes are constructed under self-help program carried out by farmers on their own initiative and and in general each scheme vary from less than 50 to 100 ha.
• The total irrigated area is estimated to be about 138,000 ha and about 572,000 farmers are involved.
• Traditional water committees, locally known as ‘water fathers’, administer the water distribution and coordinate the maintenance activities of the schemes.

•     Traditional irrigation is also very common in peri-urban areas, particularly in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, for the production of vegetables for the local market.

•      The major drawback of traditional irrigation schemes is related to unstable headworks and faulty systems of irrigation stemming from lack of technology and knowledge.
•       Simple and mostly temporary.
•       The total area irrigated under traditional irrigation as complied from master plan studies & reports of the regions is estimated to be about 64,000 ha

1.1.2   Improved /Modern/ communal irrigation schemes      (Generally termed as Modern small-scale irrigation schemes, SSIS)

These schemes use technologies for irrigating up to 200 ha and are constructed by the government/NGOs with farmer participation. (Range- 20 ha to 200 ha)

Specific Features

They are generally based on direct river diversions but they may also involve micro-dams for storage.

Example OROMIA

The Evaluation study (OIDA, 2ooo) also disclosed that rivers are the main water resource for the irrigation schemes in Oromia Region. Out of the 96 schemes, 72 schemes obtain water from rivers. The intake facilities are represented by diversion weirs. Among 96 irrigation schemes, 67 schemes are run-of -river type with diversion weirs, while pumping irrigation is operated to the limited extent.

The area equipped for irrigation in 2002 was about 48 300 ha and about 74 100 farmers were involved.

The operation and maintenance of the schemes are the responsibility of the water users, supported by the regional authorities/bureaus in charge of irrigation development and management.

Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formally established in some schemes but traditional water management dominates in most of the modern schemes.

1.2       Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes (Usually termed as  Modern private irrigation Schemes):

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by entrepreneurs, individual investors (Smallholder farmers),or small or large commercial companies

• Virtually all the early commercial farms in the 1960’s and the irrigated state farms were privately owned farms until nationalization of the rural lands/private property/  through in the mid 1970s.
•  Some of these schemes were initially privately owned until later nationalized in  coming to power  of a  socialist government and then returned by back to through privatization after disowning/abandonment

• Private investment in irrigation has recently re-emerged with the adoption of a market-based economy policy in the early 1980s.
• According Ethiopian Investment Authority 18 modern private irrigation projects are now operational.
• Accordingly, at the end of 2000, private investors had developed about 5 500 ha of irrigated farms, distributed in Afar (37 percent), Oromia (48 percent) and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) also known as the Southern Region (15 percent).
•  Built and operated by entrepreneurs, these schemes may range in size a few hectares to several  thousand hectares,
•  Depend on low- lift pumping or run-of river diversion for irrigation water abstraction.

1.3. Public Irrigation Schemes

• These schemes comprise medium- and large-scale irrigation schemes with areas of 200-3 000 ha and above 3 000 ha respectively and a total estimated area of about 97 700 ha.

•     They are constructed, owned and operated by public enterprises. These schemes are concentrated along the Awash River Course and were constructed in the 1960s-70s as either private farms or joint ventures.

•      No such schemes have been developed for the last 7-8 years up to 2004.
•       They constitute an area of about 61,000 ha
•       75% of the total is found in the Awash valley, the Blue Nile and the Wabe Shebele river basins 
•      Masonry weirs\ in some cases pump is used to abstract irrigation water.

• Conveyance & Operation is through open gravity canals.
•  Furrow irrigation scheme is the norm from water application, except in case of Fincaa sugar estate     where sprinkler is used.
•  Irrigation efficiency is low (Aswash), 40% (adequate land leveling, water control   & water  measuring devices).

About 62 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Rift Valley, while 29 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Nile basin. The remaining 9 percent is located in the Shebelli-Juba basin.

Region-wise, about 39 percent of the irrigated area is in Oromia in central Ethiopia, followed by 24 percent in Amhara in the north, 15 percent in Afar in the northeast and 12 percent in SNNPR, while the remaining 10 percent is in the other regions. Nearly 100 percent of the irrigated land is supplied from surface water, while groundwater use has just been started on a pilot scale in East Amhara. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2 percent of the irrigated area for sugar cane production by government enterprises, while localized irrigation has recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Pump irrigation by a group of farm households and private farms is practiced in some areas, while human-powered (treadle pump) irrigation has also recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Though quantitative information is not available, spate irrigation and flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country, particularly in Dire Dawa, Somali, East Amhara, and Tigray in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country.

  REFERENCES  AND LITERATURE CITED

1. Annen, Chris T. 2001. Promotion of Small-Scale Irrigation in Food Insecure Woredas of Ethiopia. Document submitted to the IDA, World Bank.
2. Aytenffisu, M. 1981. Groundwater in Ethiopia.
3. Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia. 2000/01. Agricultural sample survey, Report on Farm Management Practices of Belg Season Crops.
4. FAO. 1990. Irrigation policy and strategy in Ethiopia. Report of FAO Technical Cooperation Project TCP/ETH/8963.
5. FAO. 1994a. Studies for integrated irrigation systems - Ethiopia - Project findings and recommendations. Terminal Report of UNDP/FAO project ETH/88/001.
6. FAO. 1994b. Ethiopia: Small-scale irrigation consolidation project, Preparation report. FAO/DDC Report 59/94 ADB-ETH 48.
7. Ministry of Agriculture. 2001. The Development of Irrigation Agriculture in the Baro-Akob, Awash, Abbay, Omo-Ghibe River Basins. September 2001.
8. Ministry of Health, Disease Prevention and Control Department. 2002. AIDS in Ethiopia. Fourth Edition.
9. Ministry of Water Resources. 1996. Omo-Gibe Master Plan Studies, Water Resources Studies (main and sectoral reports).
10. Ministry of Water Resources. 1997. Baro-Akobo River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies.
11. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan (main and sectoral reports).
12. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Abbay (Nile) River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies (main and sectoral reports).
13. Ministry of Water Resources. 2000. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. July 2000.
14. Ministry of Water Resources, ITAB Consult PLC. 2001. Implementation Strategy for River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan. August 2001.
15. Water Work Design and Supervision Enterprise. 2002. Water Sector Development Program (Project ETH/98/001), Volume II-Main Report. Ministry of Water Resources.
16. Sadoff,Claudia (2005).Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth: A Water Resource Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia.  A paper presented on Evaluation Workshop at the MoWR, June 23,205,The World Bank
17. OIDA (2000).Small holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study.Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA. 2000. Finfinne
18. Etafa Emama Ligdi (2000) Discussion paper onSmall holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study. Paper presented to the  Annual Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA Evaluation Workshop September, 2000. OIDA. Finfinne.
19. Etafa Emama Ligdi  (2003),Water Harvesting: Highlights on current status and future directions in Oromia. Paper presented to the Workshop on the NGO Operations in Oromia, 17 – 18 July, 2003. OIDA. Finfinne.
20. Tesfaye Gizaw,(2004),River basin Institutions :The Ethiopian experience. Working Paper for discussion in Institutional Setup studies of the Ethiopian Nile(Abbay) Basin Project. BRL Inge’nierie-DHV-T&A. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

             Overview of  Irrigation Development   in Ethiopia

                                      Etafa Emama Ligdi, 
                         independent consultant /R&D and  development/

1.      INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE WATER SECTOR-Historical Overview*

Water resources development approaches and organizations in Ethiopia have evolved in to needs, as they were perceived over time.  Before 1956, only a small portion of Ethiopia’s water resources was developed and the Government's administrative role was minimal.  In 1956, a Water Resources Department under the Ministry of Public Works & Communications was established to handle a multi-purpose investigation of the Blue Nile Basin. Over the years, it took on the river basin studies and water well drilling programmes.

As a parallel development, the Awash Valley Authority in 1962 assumed responsibility for all water activities in the Awash Valley (AVA). Its mandate includes all aspects of water planning, development and operation including water rights administration.

In 1971, the growing importance of water elsewhere in Ethiopia was recognized by the establishment of the National Water Resources Commission (NWRC), under the then Ministry of Public Works & Water Resources.  The Commission’s purposes and objectives covered the full range of water responsibilities. The Commission’s powers were broad but were not fully exercised and implemented due to financial and organizational constraints as well as lack of commitment and willingness of public authorities to accept a national authority over water resources development and management. As a result, in 1975, the Ethiopian Water Resources Authority (EWRA) was established and placed under the Ministry of Mines, Energy & Water Resources.  Three agencies, namely, Land & Water Studies Agency, Rural Water Development Agency and Urban Water & Sewerage Agency were established under the Authority. The AVA, however, retained its responsibilities for the Awash Valley.

In another re-organizational undertaking, the Valleys Agricultural Development Authority (VADA) was proclaimed in 1977.  It had similar powers and duties as AVA except that its jurisdiction was limited to water resources (AVA’s responsibilities include all resources), but its authority covered the whole country.  To avoid conflict with AVA, the Awash Valley Development Agency (AVDA), a creation of VADA was formed. The AVDA had diminished powers as compared to those AVA had enjoyed.[1]

In 1981, a further re-organization took place in the water sector; and a new “National Water Resources Commission” (NWRC) was created.  VADA and AVDA were dissolved and incorporated in the newly established NWRC under the Water Resources Development Authority (WRDA).  The new NWRC, in fact, was composed of the Water Resources Authority, Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (WASSA), Ethiopian Water Works Construction Authority (EWWCA); and the National Meteorological Services (NMS).

After about ten years of existence, the National Water Resources Commission was dissolved and the Authorities under its umbrella, except EWWCA, were made accountable to the Ministry of Natural Resources & Environmental Protection, which was established in 1993 and existed for about two years.

The Ministry of Water Resources was established in August 1995 by proclamation No.4/95 as a federal institution for the water sector.  At regional level, the water sector is the responsibility of the Water, Mines and Energy Development Bureaus or the Water Resources Development Bureaus.

In the follow-up of the fall of the “Derg” regime, several water sector institutions have been established at federal and regional levels under the regionalization and decentralization policy.

---

* Extracts adapted from Tesfaye  Gizaw, 2004

 

2.  OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND COORDINATION IN ETHIOPIA

Food production in the country, with cereal yields of less than one t/ha has failed to keep pace with population growth and in many areas; there are increasing food deficits because of low rainfall or over-population. Rain fed agriculture provides the largest proportion of the total production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has become more important. River basin master plan studies and related surveys indicate a maximum irrigation potential of about 3.5 million ha (Table 6 ). However, the irrigation potential of Ethiopia is at present estimated at about 2.7 million ha, considering the availability of water and land resources, technology and finance.

2..1.    Domains and Processes of Coordination

2.1.1 Historical Overview-  The Ethiopian Experience in irrigation & Drainage Institutions

Even though, local traditional irrigation and drainage, I&D coordination & management has been put in place for a very long time and it  is still going strong ,centralized institutional set up to this end has been lacking for so long.

The initial coordination &management of I&D as part of the overall coordination and management of water resources stressed upon the development and utilization of land and water resources of River Valleys for agricultural development as indicated/stipulated from the early institutional set-ups since the 1950'’.

As a result ,it generally focused on administration & development of large scale irrigation schemes for private  companies and  in later stages for public enterprises, and/or may be for settlement programmes effectively after the fall of the monarchy  in 1974,and the subsequent land reform decree, This is best justified by the nature of the institutional set-ups in the 1950’s,60’s, and 70’s,

In view of the recurrent droughts and famine and the abundant resource potential (including water resources); absence of an overall I&D, administrative body for Coordination and management of all categories of Irrigation and Drainage, or  that specifically set for the communal small holder undertakings up until the disasters of 1984/5 is quite odd and weird.

Nevertheless, it is well known that the coping mechanisms of communities especially in the moisture deficit lowland areas and their adjoining peripheries is inadequate; and never prepared for curbing the effects of drought and similar adversities

Yet, smallholder irrigation development for farmers as a development intervention strategy to fight the recurrent droughts and curtail the resulting food shortages which occur following scarcity , failures, and faltering of rainfall is a very recent phenomenon, which emerged through the establishment of the Irrigation Development Department, IDD in the Ministry of Agriculture, MOA following the disasters of 1984/5 droughts and famines with a sole objective of promoting Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS for  farmers.

Furthermore, with the federal government structure put in place subsequent to the fall of the “Derg” regime, the above authority and responsibility of promotion and coordination of  SSIS was transferred to the respective regional  water ,or Natural Resources bureaux, or separate authorities & commissions  established for Irrigation or /and Sustainable Agricultural development.

Nevertheless, in most cases, the irrigation extension, cooperative and credit institutions etc.. still remain to be coordinated under separate institutions.

 What's more, a separate Federal institution , A Basin Water Resources administration and management agency ,is being set up to coordinate, administer, allocate and regulate the utilization of Surface water resources of basins, For instance for Awash River Basin in 1998 (proclamation No.129/1998).

Similarly, Studies for the establishment of other similar basin institutions, for example the Abbay Basin Agency, ABA is underway

The customary water rights embedded in the long years of traditional water use, and ownership rights are further compounded by the practically vague and intricate/ indistinct legal and institutional mandates and responsibilities in place among the federal and regional states

To this end, large water bodies, artificial storage structures and large flow canals and natural waterways are continuously deteriorating, some nearing points of no return.

2.1.2  Evolution of irrigation development

Irrigation in Ethiopia dates back several centuries, if not millennia, even though, commercial Irrigated agricultural development started in the 1960s with the objective of producing industrial crops (sugar and cotton) on large-scale basis. These "modern" irrigation schemes started with the commercial irrigated sugar estate established in the early 1950s by the Imperial Government of Ethiopia and the Dutch company known as HVA-Ethiopia.

Based up on the various river basin master plans and land and water resources survey, the aggregate irrigation potential of Ethiopia (small, medium and large) have been estimated 3.5 million hectares. Out of this estimate the medium and large-scale irrigation potential together comprises about 81.4% of the aggregate. From this potential only about 86,000 ha of land is currently developed under large-scale irrigation. This implies that still there is a need to encourage the development of large-scale schemes to alleviate poverty, prevail peace and stability in the region and for better livelihood of the people and the economic growth of the country.

Local farmers however, had, for a very long time, already been practicing rudimentary irrigation by diverting water from rivers( in the dry season), Water (flood) harvesting and making use of shallow wells, for the production of subsistence food and /or cash crops. It is but evidently found that productivity of rain-fed farming has dropped, and the agricultural sector is now unable to provide the basic requirement to the farming community. Traditional farming practices, environmental degradation, lack of external agro-inputs, effect of recurrent drought, and high population pressure have aggravated the food insecurity in Ethiopia. This implies the need of launching irrigation projects development based on the acute objectives of increasing crop yield, improving the living standard of the people and to provide a positive impact on the environment.

Various sources give different estimates of irrigated area, but recent sources indicate that the area equipped for irrigation was nearly 290 000 ha in 2001, which is 11 percent of the economical irrigation potential of 2.7 million ha. This is about 7.8% of the usually quoted overall potential of 3.7million hectares.

Table1: Irrigated Land Area in Ethiopia*

No	Category of Irrigated Agriculture	Developed land Area, [Ha.’s]
1	Communal Small holder Schemes	94,602
	1.1   Traditional /Communal/ schemes	64,000
	1.2     Improved/Modern/ communal Schemes (“SSI”)	30,602
2	Private Commercial Schemes	5,414
3	Public Schemes	61,060
	TOTAL	161,136

Source: Modified from EWWDSE, 2000

• Data on irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia is inadequate, of low quality and not comprehensive not to mention its inaccessibility. The sub-sector truly lacks an efficient and coordinated Knowledge management (Data Acquisition, storage and dissemination).

During the same period a discussion paper on the  Field Evaluation study on Farmer’s Managed Small holder Irrigation Schemes in Oromia Regional State reported that there are around 58,900ha.’s traditional and 18,100ha.’s improved schemes (About 116 schemes with about  12,500ha.’s by Government and 83 shemes amounting to about 5600ha.’s by NGO’s and other institutions at the end of 2003).  Whereas, for example the EWWDSE (2000) reported only 10,000 hectares of modern improved schemes for Oromia, probably reporting only that of the 96 schemes totaling 9644 hectares built by the government in the 2 decades prior to 2000,.

(OIDA, 2000;Ligdi, 2000; Ligdi, 2003)

Furthermore, the data obtained from the anthology of the Ministry of Water Resources, MoWR (Table 2)reveals similar trends and shows that the amount of irrigated land in around 2000 is over 200,000ha.’s and is  by far more than the ones reported by EWWDSE, 2000.

Table 2: Recent Trends in potentials created in Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

Plan  Years	1989	1991	1998	2004/5
Total Area Under Irrigation [hectares]	161010	176051	197250	539504

Source: EWWDSE, 2000; MoWR, 2004/5

Figure  : Recent Trends in  potentials created in Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

The actually irrigated area has not been estimated but field assessments in small-scale irrigation projects indicate that some irrigation schemes are not operating to their full potential and some are not functional at all due to factors related to shortage of water, damaged structures and poor water management.

Example :OROMIA

The small holders (farmers managed) improved small scale Irrigation schemes evaluation study in 2000, reveals that in Oromia  Region  the government  constructed 96 irrigation schemes during the last two decades. The total command area of the 96 schemes amounts to 9,644 ha's giving an average of 100 ha's per scheme. It is noted that only 58% of the area have been actually irrigated in that year ( i.e  2000 ) . This low performance implies that all the schemes are not well functioning and need urgent repairs & rectification. The scheme size ranges from 20 ha's to 1,500 ha's of the Meki - Ziway irrigation scheme.

Taking land area actually developed Vs planned command area as performance indicator, the study showed that only 56% of the schemes performed above 50% and 17 schemes were non-functional at the time. Furthermore about 11 shemes were performing above 100% some to up to 250% through extension of canals and irrigating at a rate lower than the irrigation depth and frequency the “modern” projects recommend through  use of low stream sizes,  long duration and irrigation applications under stress based on their local experiences

On the other hand, therefore, farmers are extending canal networks in some modern irrigation projects and can therefore irrigate more land than is reportedly equipped for irrigation. Therefore, the area under irrigation can be considered more or less similar to the area equipped for irrigation.

Indicative Future Trends

The Recent commitment and enthusiasm towards creation of more potentials for irrigated agriculture is best shown in the PASDEP programme setting  out a 5 years I&D Development plan aspiring to bring about 435,000 hectares under irrigation (Table3)

Table  3 : Five Years Irrigation Development Program (2005/06-2010/11) PASDEP, Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty., Program

A.IMPLEMENTATION PLAN  FOR 38 IRRIGATION PROJECTS

(2005/06-2010/11)

Identification study of 6 schemes                                        177,998 ha

Feasibility study of 5 schemes                                              84,335 ha

Feasibility+ DD + Construction 22  schemes                      315,571 ha

Construction of 5 schemes                                                    119,640ha

---

         Overall Total (Construction)                                                435,221 hectares

B.        ONGOING IRRIGATION PROGRAMS

(2005/07)

1 identification study project                                                      177,998 ha

Feasibility study and detail design of 9 projects covering          252,271 ha

4 construction projects covering                                                 100,340ha

2.2     Categories of irrigation schemes:

In the Ethiopian context, the irrigation sub-sector was conventionally classified as small (less than 200ha), medium (200 to 3000ha) and large-scale (over 3000ha) schemes in the early years of its emergence. It refers only to size of land and ignores the scales of capital, knowledge and technology involved. This customary arrangement was opted for its simplicity ,as then the large scale farms were either private company or  public owned and the small scale farms were that of farmers(private or communal).  However, that situation is consistently eroding as small scale, high capital, and knowledge intensive farms by private companies emerged; and farmers holdings started to shoot up. Furthermore, the scale of the finance, technology and management which were disguised require attention to determine the optimum coordination and management.

In order to overcome, this lump sum approach and investigate the concealed facts of ownership scale of investment, and knowledge in the oromia region, Ligdi (2003) used an alternative approach which was also very common in other countries and  the region. This recommendation was opted for and presented   as follows. 

Irrigated Agriculture is categorized into 3 major categories (Ligdi, 2003)

1.    Communal Small Holder  Irrigation Schemes
 

These small holder schemes are are constructed and developed by self –help or through projects with External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers. They are usually communal and managed by the small holder farmers themselves.

These Communal smallholder schemes Comprise of 

a.    the traditional communal Irrigation Schemes  (usually termed as Traditional Schemes) and;

b.     the Improved /”Modern”/ Communal Schemes mostly termed as Modern Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS

2.    Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by enterpreuners, individual investors (Smallholder farmers), or small or large commercial companies

3.    Public Irrigation Schemes

 These are mostly medium and large scale schemes developed/nationalized/, owned and managed by the government as commercial farms producing for export to generate foreign currency, create employment opportunities, etc..

Figure  : Irrigated land area in the different categories in Ethiopia

2...2.1   Communal Small Holder Irrigation Schemes

General (Major) features

These small holder schemes are dominated by self –help irrigation and Water undertakings based solely on local knowledge and skills with no or a very Low External inputs as the case is in traditional irrigation; and also includes the projects developed through External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers, and termed as Improved Small scale Irrigation, SSI schemes ,

Both the Traditional and Improved schemes are usually managed by the farmers themselves, through appropriately organized farmers user groups termed as Irrigation Water Users Associations, WUA’S.

Initial costs of small holder irrigation schemes are small, and O&M costs are relatively low.

2.2.1.1 Traditional irrigation schemes:

Specific  Features

• These schemes are constructed under self-help program carried out by farmers on their own initiative and and in general each scheme vary from less than 50 to 100 ha.
• The total irrigated area is estimated to be about 138,000 ha and about 572,000 farmers are involved.
• Traditional water committees, locally known as ‘water fathers’, administer the water distribution and coordinate the maintenance activities of the schemes.

•     Traditional irrigation is also very common in peri-urban areas, particularly in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, for the production of vegetables for the local market.

•      The major drawback of traditional irrigation schemes is related to unstable headworks and faulty systems of irrigation stemming from lack of technology and knowledge.
•       Simple and mostly temporary.
•       The total area irrigated under traditional irrigation as complied from master plan studies & reports of the regions is estimated to be about 64,000 ha

2.2.1.2   Improved /Modern/ communal irrigation schemes      (Generally termed as Modern small-scale irrigation schemes, SSIS)

These schemes use technologies for irrigating up to 200 ha and are constructed by the government/NGOs with farmer participation. (Range- 20 ha to 200 ha)

Specific Features

They are generally based on direct river diversions but they may also involve micro-dams for storage.

Example OROMIA

The Evaluation study (OIDA, 2ooo) also disclosed that rivers are the main water resource for the irrigation schemes in Oromia Region. Out of the 96 schemes, 72 schemes obtain water from rivers. The intake facilities are represented by diversion weirs. Among 96 irrigation schemes, 67 schemes are run-of -river type with diversion weirs, while pumping irrigation is operated to the limited extent.

The area equipped for irrigation in 2002 was about 48 300 ha and about 74 100 farmers were involved.

The operation and maintenance of the schemes are the responsibility of the water users, supported by the regional authorities/bureaus in charge of irrigation development and management.

Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formally established in some schemes but traditional water management dominates in most of the modern schemes.

1.2.2       Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes (Usually termed as  Modern private irrigation Schemes):

These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by entrepreneurs, individual investors (Smallholder farmers),or small or large commercial companies

• Virtually all the early commercial farms in the 1960’s and the irrigated state farms were privately owned farms until nationalization of the rural lands/private property/  through in the mid 1970s.
•  Some of these schemes were initially privately owned until later nationalized in  coming to power  of a  socialist government and then returned by back to through privatization after disowning/abandonment

• Private investment in irrigation has recently re-emerged with the adoption of a market-based economy policy in the early 1980s.
• According Ethiopian Investment Authority 18 modern private irrigation projects are now operational.
• Accordingly, at the end of 2000, private investors had developed about 5 500 ha of irrigated farms, distributed in Afar (37 percent), Oromia (48 percent) and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) also known as the Southern Region (15 percent).
•  Built and operated by entrepreneurs, these schemes may range in size a few hectares to several  thousand hectares,
•  Depend on low- lift pumping or run-of river diversion for irrigation water abstraction.

2.2.3. Public Irrigation Schemes

• These schemes comprise medium- and large-scale irrigation schemes with areas of 200-3 000 ha and above 3 000 ha respectively and a total estimated area of about 97 700 ha.

•     They are constructed, owned and operated by public enterprises. These schemes are concentrated along the Awash River Course and were constructed in the 1960s-70s as either private farms or joint ventures.

•      No such schemes have been developed for the last 7-8 years.
•       They constitute an area of about 61,000 ha
•       75% of the total is found in the Awash valley, the Blue Nile and the Wabe Shebele river basins 
•      Masonry weirs\ in some cases pump is used to abstract irrigation water.

• Conveyance & Operation is through open gravity canals.
•  Furrow irrigation scheme is the norm from water application, except in case of Fincaa sugar estate     where sprinkler is used.
•  Irrigation efficiency is low (Aswash), 40% (adequate land leveling, water control   & water  measuring devices).

About 62 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Rift Valley, while 29 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Nile basin. The remaining 9 percent is located in the Shebelli-Juba basin.

Region-wise, about 39 percent of the irrigated area is in Oromia in central Ethiopia, followed by 24 percent in Amhara in the north, 15 percent in Afar in the northeast and 12 percent in SNNPR, while the remaining 10 percent is in the other regions. Nearly 100 percent of the irrigated land is supplied from surface water, while groundwater use has just been started on a pilot scale in East Amhara. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2 percent of the irrigated area for sugar cane production by government enterprises, while localized irrigation has recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Pump irrigation by a group of farm households and private farms is practiced in some areas, while human-powered (treadle pump) irrigation has also recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Though quantitative information is not available, spate irrigation and flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country, particularly in Dire Dawa, Somali, East Amhara, and Tigray in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country.

2.3     STATUS AND EVOLUTION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Drainage is as important as irrigation, particularly in the highlands of Ethiopia. However, except in irrigated lands, drainage is not given the required attention in rainfed agriculture where farmers construct traditional drain ditches commonly diagonal to the main slope of the farmlands. Because of irregularity in cross-sections and longitudinal slopes as well as inadequate capacities, the drains are usually converted to gullies if the same drains are adopted year after year. To avoid this happening, drain lines are changed every year. Designs of small-scale irrigation schemes incorporate drainage systems but these are not properly implemented. The typology of the drainage system used in the country is the surface drainage system (gravity drainage). The construction of subsurface drainage systems was started for one large-scale irrigation scheme in the Awash Valley for salinity control, but was discontinued. Separate information on the cost of drainage systems is not available because it is included in the overall development cost of the irrigation system.

Traditional Drainage Agriculture/Recession Agriculture/,

Traditional Drainage agriculture (Recession Agriculture) using surface field drainage ditches in valley bottoms and lowlying areas is adundant in high rainfall areas. Wetlands surrounding water bodies (lakes, rivers, springs,etc..) are also becoming under increased risks of degradation through clearance for opening up new agricultural lands .

Albeit,  their appreciable contribution to the overall agricultural production of the locality  they are practised in  ,and their  practice and use in the lean months of the rainfed agriculture; these traditional forms of drainage agriculture are the least studied and supported.

even though the recent agricultural food security  packages programme  has incorporated them as an  activity, their evaluation  and understanding remains open for investigation.

3.    THE ROLE OF IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA

3.1 General

Both irrigated and rainfed agriculture is important in the Ethiopian economy. Virtually all food crops in Ethiopia come from rainfed agriculture with the irrigation sub-sector accounting for only about 3 percent of the food crops. Export crops such as coffee, oilseed and pulses are also mostly rainfed, but industrial crops such as sugar cane, cotton and fruit are irrigated. Other important irrigated crops include vegetables and fruit trees in medium- and large-scale schemes and maize, wheat, vegetables, potatoes, sweet potatoes and bananas in small-scale schemes. There is a marked value added in irrigated agriculture.

Development costs per hectare of small-scale irrigation schemes are US$ 1760-2940 for direct river diversion schemes and US$ 4700-7100 for schemes requiring micro-dams, while the respective annual operation and maintenance (O&M) costs per hectare are US$ 70-120 and US$ 160-240 respectively. In 1998, development costs for public surface irrigation schemes (large- and medium-scale) were estimated to be in the range of US$ 3300-12800/ha, with the average cost being US$ 8100/ha. This high cost is due to the fact that the construction of expensive head works is included in the calculation. Annual O&M costs for these schemes are US$ 60-220/ha. The cost of sprinkler and localized irrigation installation is about US$ 5160/ha and US$ 5560/ha respectively.

The proportion of traditionally irrigated land (almost half of the total irrigated area) and the number of farmers involved indicate the significant economic and social role of traditional irrigation for rural society. Urban and peri-urban irrigation are not significant in terms of area coverage and production, but the traditional irrigation practice around Addis Ababa plays an important role in supplying vegetables for the Addis Ababa market.

Supplementary irrigation is widely practiced in all irrigation categories, although separate quantitative information on the area supplied with supplementary irrigation is not available. The areas under traditional and small-scale irrigation systems are supplied with full irrigation during dry periods and with supplementary irrigation when the rain comes late or withdraws early, or when there is inadequate rainfall.

Rainfed farming has always been the main livelihood for most Ethiopian people and is supported by traditional water harvesting practices particularly in central-north, eastern and southeastern areas of the country.

3.2.    Irrigation & Drainage development; Water resources Management and Sustainable Growth.

The effect of management of water resources (including irrigation development) on the current and future sustainable economic growth of Ethiopia is best explained by Claudia Seddof, a world bank economist in her paper entitled  ”Managing Water Resources To Maximise Sustainable Growth –A Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia.”(The World Bank,2005).

The paper focuses on understanding the dynamics of water in economy, (i.e how to manage water to minimise destructive and enhance productive impacts on the economy; and how to manage the economy to minimise the impact of water shocks).

The Paper explains/summarises the challenges of the Ethiopia’s hydro-economy as follows:

Ethiopia’s hydrological variability is extreme and this variability impacts the entire economy whose structure makes it particularly vulnerable to hydrologic variability and the water infrastructure is inadequate to mitigate variability and enable growth.

Economic infrastructure

Figure   :Water Infrastructure Development in Ethiopia, (world bank,2005)

Storage infrastructure

Figure:  Per capita Storage Capacity of Some Countries. (World Bank, 2003)

Furthermore, in an economy-wide multi-market model for Ethiopia (Standard model for growth and poverty projection) modified to explicitly incorporate hydrology.

The paper concluded that

1.      Macro economic models , that fail to take account of hydrological variability, and which are often employed in Ethiopia, fail to show  the water’s “ drag ‘ on growth and hence over estimate growth and under estimate poverty and undervalue returns to irrigation as irrigation doesn’t pay well if rainfall is good-

2.      Ethiopia does not yet have the minimum plat form of infrastructure, institutions and capacity to reach the tipping point of water security where net impact of water on growth is positive.

In assessing alternative investments, the model showed that

1.      Projected returns to irrigation investments increase as variability increase

[taking account of hydrology can more than double returns]

2.     Synergies between irrigation and infrastructure investments increases as variability increases

As an insight for intervention the model recommends/ prioritizes, among others, that

Multi-purpose hydraulic infrastructure development/ multi-purpose storage and river regulation facilities [hydropower, irrigation and even roads ] to promote economic resilience as a proposed strategy for the Bank support.

The major insight of the model and the study as a whole were very significant and imperative for the irrigation sub-sector which had been tied up for so long with no visible positive impact on economy.

What is crucial is that this is so in a country where recurrent droughts and famine, and food insecurity claim millions of lives, now and then,, despite the vast unexploited resources  and growth opportunities 

These fundamental and critical conclusions and recommendations, are summarized as follows:

Growth will be undermined until water security is attained, it will require very large investment to achieve a nation-wide minimum platform of water infrastructure and management capacity

Economic wide models that fail to incorporate hydrological variability will be poor predictors of growth & poverty.

Current structure of the economy & incentives trap farmers in highly vulnerable rain fed subsistence agriculture-[hydrological resilience will require structural change in the economy]

Multipurpose hydraulic/hydropower infrastructure can promote economic resilience both by directly regulating flows and by promoting structural shifts in the economy

Returns to irrigation and Drainage investments are systematically underestimated in models that fail to capture hydrology because returns to irrigation and drainage are highest in times of drought and flood

Multi-purpose Hydraulic infrastructure development (including Multi-purpose storage facilities for I& D) is proposed/recommended   as   a strategy for  maximising sustainable growth in Ethiopia

In summary the study shows that the country’s economy is dependant on hydrological variability and the only way out is to achieve/attain water security through, among others, development of multipurpose water infrastructure which will positively impact the economy and maximise sustainable growth.

Therefore, unless and until the minimum platform for water security is reached, the country’s hydro-economy will continue to be vulnerable, inept and incapable to enable real and sustainable growth.

  REFERENCES  AND LITERATURE CITED

1. Annen, Chris T. 2001. Promotion of Small-Scale Irrigation in Food Insecure Woredas of Ethiopia. Document submitted to the IDA, World Bank.
2. Aytenffisu, M. 1981. Groundwater in Ethiopia.
3. Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia. 2000/01. Agricultural sample survey, Report on Farm Management Practices of Belg Season Crops.
4. FAO. 1990. Irrigation policy and strategy in Ethiopia. Report of FAO Technical Cooperation Project TCP/ETH/8963.
5. FAO. 1994a. Studies for integrated irrigation systems - Ethiopia - Project findings and recommendations. Terminal Report of UNDP/FAO project ETH/88/001.
6. FAO. 1994b. Ethiopia: Small-scale irrigation consolidation project, Preparation report. FAO/DDC Report 59/94 ADB-ETH 48.
7. Ministry of Agriculture. 2001. The Development of Irrigation Agriculture in the Baro-Akob, Awash, Abbay, Omo-Ghibe River Basins. September 2001.
8. Ministry of Health, Disease Prevention and Control Department. 2002. AIDS in Ethiopia. Fourth Edition.
9. Ministry of Water Resources. 1996. Omo-Gibe Master Plan Studies, Water Resources Studies (main and sectoral reports).
10. Ministry of Water Resources. 1997. Baro-Akobo River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies.
11. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan (main and sectoral reports).
12. Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Abbay (Nile) River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies (main and sectoral reports).
13. Ministry of Water Resources. 2000. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. July 2000.
14. Ministry of Water Resources, ITAB Consult PLC. 2001. Implementation Strategy for River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan. August 2001.
15. Water Work Design and Supervision Enterprise. 2002. Water Sector Development Program (Project ETH/98/001), Volume II-Main Report. Ministry of Water Resources.
16. Sadoff,Claudia (2005).Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth: A Water Resource Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia.  A paper presented on Evaluation Workshop at the MoWR, June 23,205,The World Bank
17. OIDA (2000).Small holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study.Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA. 2000. Finfinne
18. Etafa Emama Ligdi(2000)Discussion paper onSmall holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study. Paper presented to the  Annual Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA Evaluation Workshop September, 2000. OIDA. Finfinne.
19. Etafa Emama Ligdi  (2003),Water Harvesting: Highlights on current status and future directions in Oromia. Paper presented to the Workshop on the NGO Operations in Oromia, 17 – 18 July, 2003. OIDA. Finfinne.
20. Tesfaye Gizaw,(2004),River basin Institutions :The Ethiopian experience. Working Paper for discussion in Institutional Setup studies of the Ethiopian Nile(Abbay) Basin Project. BRL Inge’nierie-DHV-T&A. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 The study forms  the basis and part of the consultancy study  on "Strengthening the Ethiopian Commiittee on Irrigation & Drainage,ETCID'' Planned to be supported by IWMI's APPIA project,and the ETCID Secretariat at the MoWR.


The Study Team:

1.  Etafa Emama Ligdi   -MoWR
2. Fantaw Abegaz  - EARO
3. Getaneh Assefa  -MoWR



Reference:

Etafa Emama Ligdi,  Fantaw  Abegaz,  Getaneh Assefa, (2007). Feasibility Study On ”Strengthening The Ethiopian Committee On Irrigation & Drainage, ETCID”:Draft Inception Report, May 14, 2007.  Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

: