Overview of Irrigation Development and Coordination in Ethiopia
Etafa Emama Ligdi, Fantaw Abegaz, Getaneh Assefa,
1. DECISION SUPPORT IN WATER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
1.1 Institutional Development of the Water Sector – Historical Overview*
Water resources development approaches and organizations in Ethiopia have evolved in to needs, as they were perceived over time. Before 1956, only a small portion of Ethiopia’s water resources was developed and the Government's administrative role was minimal. In 1956, a Water Resources Department under the Ministry of Public Works & Communications was established to handle a multi-purpose investigation of the Blue Nile Basin. Over the years, it took on the river basin studies and water well drilling programmes.
As a parallel development, the Awash Valley Authority in 1962 assumed responsibility for all water activities in the Awash Valley (AVA). Its mandate includes all aspects of water planning, development and operation including water rights administration.
In 1971, the growing importance of water elsewhere in Ethiopia was recognized by the establishment of the National Water Resources Commission (NWRC), under the then Ministry of Public Works & Water Resources. The Commission’s purposes and objectives covered the full range of water responsibilities. The Commission’s powers were broad but were not fully exercised and implemented due to financial and organizational constraints as well as lack of commitment and willingness of public authorities to accept a national authority over water resources development and management. As a result, in 1975, the Ethiopian Water Resources Authority (EWRA) was established and placed under the Ministry of Mines, Energy & Water Resources. Three agencies, namely, Land & Water Studies Agency, Rural Water Development Agency and Urban Water & Sewerage Agency were established under the Authority. The AVA, however, retained its responsibilities for the Awash Valley.
In another re-organizational undertaking, the Valleys Agricultural Development Authority (VADA) was proclaimed in 1977. It had similar powers and duties as AVA except that its jurisdiction was limited to water resources (AVA’s responsibilities include all resources), but its authority covered the whole country. To avoid conflict with AVA, the Awash Valley Development Agency (AVDA), a creation of VADA was formed. The AVDA had diminished powers as compared to those AVA had enjoyed.[1]
In 1981, a further re-organization took place in the water sector; and a new “National Water Resources Commission” (NWRC) was created. VADA and AVDA were dissolved and incorporated in the newly established NWRC under the Water Resources Development Authority (WRDA). The new NWRC, in fact, was composed of the Water Resources Authority, Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (WASSA), Ethiopian Water Works Construction Authority (EWWCA); and the National Meteorological Services (NMS).
After about ten years of existence, the National Water Resources Commission was dissolved and the Authorities under its umbrella, except EWWCA, were made accountable to the Ministry of Natural Resources & Environmental Protection, which was established in 1993 and existed for about two years.
The Ministry of Water Resources was established in August 1995 by proclamation No.4/95 as a federal institution for the water sector. At regional level, the water sector is the responsibility of the Water, Mines and Energy Development Bureaus or the Water Resources Development Bureaus.
In the follow-up of the fall of the “Derg” regime, several water sector institutions have been established at federal and regional levels under the regionalization and decentralization policy.
1.2 Current Institutional Set Up
The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) with its various technical departments provides a nucleus for the development of water resources in the country. The Ministry is the highest federal authority for all water affairs, constitutionally. Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation Commissions and Irrigation development authorities which are currently changed to Water Resource Development Bureaus at regional level has responsibility for the study, design and integrated development of small and medium scale irrigation, while MoWR has an overall policy, Planning and regulatory role. Under the economic policy of the Government, the private sector can play a pivotal role in the development of irrigated agriculture. The International and Local None Governmental Organizations also play a significant role in study, design and development of small-scale irrigation schemes in different regions.
So far, irrigation development has been based on a single project approach and hence it has had both positive and negative social and environmental impacts. The Water Resources Management Policy emphasizes an integrated approach to water resources development to maximize the positive impact and avoid or minimize any negative effects of irrigation development. Under this policy, the following federal departments/units have been established within the MoWR: The Irrigation and Drainage Department; The Dams and Hydropower Department; The Policy Development Coordination and Foreign Relations Department; The Water Utilization Control Function Section within The Master Plan Development Studies Department; The Research and Development Department; and The Water Resources Development Fund (WRDF).
At the federal level, the public institutions involved in water resources development include:
- The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) is responsible for the overall planning, development, management, utilization and protection of the country’s water resources, as well as supervising all water development activities carried out by other institutions. Large-scale water supply is also handled by the ministry through its Water Supply and Sewerage Department.
- The Awash Basin Water Resources Management Agency (ABWRMA) is the only basin level institution established for administering and managing the Awash River Water. Most of the medium- and large-scale irrigation projects and salinity and flooding problems are concentrated in this basin.
- The Ministry of Agriculture (MoARD) is in charge of water management (irrigation extension) under small - scale irrigation practices, including water harvesting for smallholder irrigated and rainfed agriculture.
- The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is responsible for the preparation of environmental protection policy, laws and directives. It is also in charge of evaluating the impact of social and economic development projects, particularly irrigation and hydropower projects, on the environment and is further responsible for follow-up work.
The regional/sub-national institutions involved in the water sector include:
- The Bureaus of Water, Mines and Energy (BoWME) and/or Bureaus of Water Resources Development (BoWRD) which exist in some regions and are responsible for small-scale irrigation and rural water supply as well as small-scale hydropower development
- The Commissions for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation (Co-SAER) and the Irrigation Development Authorities which undertake operational activities in line with their mandates (study, design and construction of small-scale irrigation schemes).
- The Bureaus of Agriculture (BoA) have similar functions at the regional scale as the MoARD.
- Several NGOs are involved in the water sector, particularly in small-scale irrigation and rural water supply projects.
1.3 Water management
Medium and large-scale irrigation schemes are managed by government enterprises. The water management of small-scale irrigation schemes is the responsibility of the farmers themselves, mainly through informal/traditional community groups. Some formal Water Users Associations (WUAs) have been established. Apart from the provision of extension and training services to the WUAs on the part of the MoARD/BoARD, no institution is directly involved in water management in smallholder-irrigated agriculture. Once the construction of irrigation schemes is completed, they are handed over to the beneficiaries but maintenance remains within the responsibility of the regional governments. The absence of any appropriate local-level organs to cater for small-scale irrigation has resulted in a lack of guidance in irrigation operation and maintenance at a community level. With an increase in irrigated areas and more users, irrigation water management and rules for water allocation are becoming more complex and problematic. Disputes are already common, especially between upstream and downstream users. A decentralization process is under way with regional and lower level administrative organs which are becoming more autonomous in aspects related to irrigation development and water management. The strategy is to establish WUAs before projects are implemented and to strengthen them through both training and involvement in the process so that they can take over the responsibility of operation and water management when construction is completed.
Even in good years, Ethiopia cannot meet its large food deficit through rainfed production. Growing population pressure in the highland areas of rainfed agriculture on a rapidly declining natural resource base has secured irrigated agriculture a prominent position on the country’s development agenda. Ethiopia plans to develop an additional 274 612 ha of irrigated land (127 138 ha small-scale and 147 474 ha medium- and large-scale) up to 2016. However, while human, land and water resources for irrigation development may be available; constraints are the lack of institutional capacity, private sector involvement and markets, as well as food insecurity, which affects the dilemma of cost recovery because of targeting food security first by growing food crops instead of cash crops.
Based on the seasonal irrigation water requirements of each crop and improved irrigation efficiency (45 percent), annual agricultural water use is expected to increase from the present estimated demand of about 5.2 to 9.0 km3 in 2016. Farmers in southern Ethiopia used to produce cotton under irrigation but bananas, papayas and vegetables are now preferred as a result of the unattractively low prices of cotton. Similarly, teff, which is the staple food for a significant proportion of Ethiopians and which has a low water demand, is presently grown under irrigation, but because of its low productivity and high labor demand it may be replaced by another crop. Hence, cropping patterns will have an impact on agricultural water demand. During years of drought, crops with high water demand may be discouraged in order to safeguard hydropower generation.
1.4. Finances
The federal or regional government determines funding for water development activities. The irrigation authorities have financial autonomy only over their approved and allocated budget. So far, neither cost recovery nor irrigation charges have been considered in irrigation development. However, in some cases beneficiaries have been contributing to the development of some small-scale irrigation schemes by providing free labor for up to 10 percent of the investment. The 15-year National Water Sector Development Program, presented in 2002, envisages cost recovery or cost-sharing mechanisms, in which case financing for small-scale irrigation development projects will come from the regional governments (45 percent), beneficiaries (20 percent), multilateral and bilateral sources (20 percent), NGOs (10 percent) and private investors (5 percent). Similarly, the federal government (40 percent), multilateral and bilateral sources (40 percent), beneficiaries (10 percent) and private investments (10 percent) will cover medium and large-scale irrigation development expenses. Obviously, there is a long way to go to establish a cost-sharing system because most beneficiaries have not even contributed to the operation and management of the existing schemes let alone to construction costs. In some small-scale irrigation schemes, though, beneficiary communities collect irrigation charges for covering minor maintenance costs, each beneficiary paying the same amount irrespective of farm size or quantity of water consumed.
A Water Resources Development Fund (WRDF) has been established recently within the MoWR to serve as a public financial intermediary dedicated to financing the water supply and sanitation services and irrigation development through the provision of a long-term loan to groups meeting established criteria and based on the principles of cost recovery. The WRDF, which finds funds from donors, is a nucleus for the development of a financially autonomous institution for water resources development through a cost recovery system.
1.5. Water Policies, legislation and development programs
A comprehensive and integrated Water Resources Management Policy, prepared by the MoWR, was adopted in 2000. Some of the guiding principles are: i) recognition of water as a scarce and vital socio-economic resource to be managed and planned strategically; ii) recognition of water as an economic good; iii) stakeholders to be involved in water resources management. Relevant proclamations include:
- Proclamation No 197/2000, stating that all of the country’s water resources are the common property of the Ethiopian people and the state and giving the MoWR the necessary power to allocate and apportion water to all regional states regardless of the source and location of the resource.
- Proclamation No 4/1995, stating that the MoWR has the power and duty to determine the conditions and methods required for the optimum allocation and utilization of the water that flows across or between more than one regional government among various users.
- Proclamation No 41/1993, granting the regions the mandate for certain aspects of water resource management, including small-scale hydropower activities.
- Proclamation No 197/1992, dealing with the water resources management regulations describing development areas that require a license, procedures for obtaining licenses, the allocation of water for various uses and the need to protect water resources from pollution. It considers that water is an economic good and that it has to be valued and deserves protection. A water code is being drafted.
The overall objective of the Irrigation Policy, which is one chapter of the Water Resources Management Policy, is to develop the huge irrigated-agriculture potential for the production of the food crops and raw materials needed for agro-industries in a sustainable way. The policy emphasizes:
- Full integration of irrigation with the overall framework of socio-economic development plans, and more particularly with the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization Strategy,
- Irrigation being an integral part of the water sector and overall water resources development;
- A reasonable percentage of the GDP being committed to the development of irrigation;
- Decentralization and user-based management of irrigation systems, considering the special needs of rural women;
- Developing priority schemes based on food requirements and the national economy;
- Supporting and enhancing traditional irrigation schemes;
- Ensuring the prevention and mitigation of the degradation of irrigation water;
- Establishing water allocation and priority setting criteria;
- Integration of appropriate drainage facilities and environmental sustainability requirements;
- Enhancing greater participation of regional and other stakeholders;
- Promoting fairness and transparency in the management of irrigated agriculture.
Water Resource Sector Strategies have been developed and short-, medium- and long-term Sector Development Program prepared for the period 2002-2016. These strategies include the financing of water resources management and development; the creation of an enabling environment; transboundary rivers management; stakeholder participation and gender mainstreaming; disaster-prevention and public safety, and environmental health standards.
The Federal Water Resources Management Policy, issued in 1999, elaborates on the water supply and sanitation, irrigation and hydropower sectors. It promotes the sustainable development of water resources for equitable social and economic benefits through public participation and IWRM. In order to implement the requirements set forth in the policy, various legal and institutional capacity-building efforts are currently underway.
The fifteen-year Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP) was put into effect in 2002, and the Water Resources Management Proclamation was issued the same year to provide legal ground for the implementation of the Water Policy. It is composed of five programmes and sets the targets on water supply and sewerage, irrigation and drainage, hydropower development, general water resources programme and institutions/capacity-building. Furthermore, vocational and technical training centres, operational since 2003, have been established to train technicians on irrigation development schemes and water supply and sanitation services.
In addition, the government has taken the initiative to establish basin institutions. For this purpose, with the financial and technical aid of international donors, an institutional study has been initiated for the Blue Nile (Abbay) Basin as a pilot project. Upon the successful completion of this project, the establishment of similar institutions in other basins are foreseen. However, awareness-raising activities to disseminate existing plans and policies at various levels (public and national institutions) are lacking. Furthermore, due to the absence of a functioning monitoring and evaluation system, the rate of implementation and the effectiveness of policies have not yet been assessed.
2. OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND COORDINATION IN ETHIOPIA
Food production in the country, with cereal yields of less than one t/ha has failed to keep pace with population growth and in many areas; there are increasing food deficits because of low rainfall or over-population. Rain fed agriculture provides the largest proportion of the total production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has become more important. River basin master plan studies and related surveys indicate a maximum irrigation potential of about 3.5 million ha (Table 6 ). However, the irrigation potential of Ethiopia is at present estimated at about 2.7 million ha, considering the availability of water and land resources, technology and finance.
2..1. Domains and Processes of Coordination
2.1.1 Historical Overview- The Ethiopian Experience in irrigation & Drainage Institutions
Even though, local traditional irrigation and drainage, I&D coordination & management has been put in place for a very long time and it is still going strong ,centralized institutional set up to this end has been lacking for so long.
The initial coordination &management of I&D as part of the overall coordination and management of water resources stressed upon the development and utilization of land and water resources of River Valleys for agricultural development as indicated/stipulated from the early institutional set-ups since the 1950'’.
As a result ,it generally focused on administration & development of large scale irrigation schemes for private companies and in later stages for public enterprises, and/or may be for settlement programmes effectively after the fall of the monarchy in 1974,and the subsequent land reform decree, This is best justified by the nature of the institutional set-ups in the 1950’s,60’s, and 70’s,
In view of the recurrent droughts and famine and the abundant resource potential (including water resources); absence of an overall I&D, administrative body for Coordination and management of all categories of Irrigation and Drainage, or that specifically set for the communal small holder undertakings up until the disasters of 1984/5 is quite odd and weird.
Nevertheless, it is well known that the coping mechanisms of communities especially in the moisture deficit lowland areas and their adjoining peripheries is inadequate; and never prepared for curbing the effects of drought and similar adversities
Yet, smallholder irrigation development for farmers as a development intervention strategy to fight the recurrent droughts and curtail the resulting food shortages which occur following scarcity , failures, and faltering of rainfall is a very recent phenomenon, which emerged through the establishment of the Irrigation Development Department, IDD in the Ministry of Agriculture, MOA following the disasters of 1984/5 droughts and famines with a sole objective of promoting Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS for farmers.
Furthermore, with the federal government structure put in place subsequent to the fall of the “Derg” regime, the above authority and responsibility of promotion and coordination of SSIS was transferred to the respective regional water ,or Natural Resources bureaux, or separate authorities & commissions established for Irrigation or /and Sustainable Agricultural development.
Nevertheless, in most cases, the irrigation extension, cooperative and credit institutions etc.. still remain to be coordinated under separate institutions.
What's more, a separate Federal institution , A Basin Water Resources administration and management agency ,is being set up to coordinate, administer, allocate and regulate the utilization of Surface water resources of basins, For instance for Awash River Basin in 1998 (proclamation No.129/1998).
Similarly, Studies for the establishment of other similar basin institutions, for example the Abbay Basin Agency, ABA is underway
The customary water rights embedded in the long years of traditional water use, and ownership rights are further compounded by the practically vague and intricate/ indistinct legal and institutional mandates and responsibilities in place among the federal and regional states
To this end, large water bodies, artificial storage structures and large flow canals and natural waterways are continuously deteriorating, some nearing points of no return.
2.1.2 Evolution of irrigation development
Irrigation in Ethiopia dates back several centuries, if not millennia, even though, commercial Irrigated agricultural development started in the 1960s with the objective of producing industrial crops (sugar and cotton) on large-scale basis. These "modern" irrigation schemes started with the commercial irrigated sugar estate established in the early 1950s by the Imperial Government of Ethiopia and the Dutch company known as HVA-Ethiopia.
Based up on the various river basin master plans and land and water resources survey, the aggregate irrigation potential of Ethiopia (small, medium and large) have been estimated 3.5 million hectares. Out of this estimate the medium and large-scale irrigation potential together comprises about 81.4% of the aggregate. From this potential only about 86,000 ha of land is currently developed under large-scale irrigation. This implies that still there is a need to encourage the development of large-scale schemes to alleviate poverty, prevail peace and stability in the region and for better livelihood of the people and the economic growth of the country.
Various sources give different estimates of irrigated area, but recent sources indicate that the area equipped for irrigation was nearly 290 000 ha in 2001, which is 11 percent of the economical irrigation potential of 2.7 million ha. This is about 7.8% of the usually quoted overall potential of 3.7million hectares.
Table1: Irrigated Land Area in Ethiopia*
No
|
Category of Irrigated Agriculture
|
Developed land Area, [Ha.’s]
|
1
|
Communal Small holder Schemes
|
94,602
|
1.1 Traditional /Communal/ schemes
|
64,000
| |
1.2 Improved/Modern/ communal Schemes (“SSI”)
|
30,602
| |
2
|
Private Commercial Schemes
|
5,414
|
3
|
Public Schemes
|
61,060
|
TOTAL
|
161,136
|
Source: Modified from EWWDSE, 2000
- Data on irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia is inadequate, of low quality and not comprehensive not to mention its inaccessibility. The sub-sector truly lacks an efficient and coordinated Knowledge management (Data Acquisition, storage and dissemination)
During the same period a discussion paper on the Field Evaluation study on Farmer’s Managed Small holder Irrigation Schemes in Oromia Regional State reported that there are around 58,900ha.’s traditional and 18,100ha.’s improved schemes (About 116 schemes with about 12,500ha.’s by Government and 83 shemes amounting to about 5600ha.’s by NGO’s and other institutions at the end of 2003). Whereas, for example the EWWDSE (2000) reported only 10,000 hectares of modern improved schemes for Oromia, probably reporting only that of the 96 schemes totaling 9644 hectares built by the government in the 2 decades prior to 2000,.
(OIDA, 2000;Ligdi, 2000; Ligdi, 2003)
Furthermore, the data obtained from the anthology of the Ministry of Water Resources, MoWR (Table 2)reveals similar trends and shows that the amount of irrigated land in around 2000 is over 200,000ha.’s and is by far more than the ones reported by EWWDSE, 2000.
Plan Years
|
1989
|
1991
|
1998
|
2004/5
|
Total Area Under Irrigation [hectares]
|
161010
|
176051
|
197250
|
539504
|
Source: EWWDSE, 2000; MoWR, 2004/5
Figure : Recent Trends in potentials created in Irrigation Development in Ethiopia
The actually irrigated area has not been estimated but field assessments in small-scale irrigation projects indicate that some irrigation schemes are not operating to their full potential and some are not functional at all due to factors related to shortage of water, damaged structures and poor water management.
Example :OROMIA
The small holders (farmers managed) improved small scale Irrigation schemes evaluation study in 2000, reveals that in Oromia Region the government constructed 96 irrigation schemes during the last two decades. The total command area of the 96 schemes amounts to 9,644 ha's giving an average of 100 ha's per scheme. It is noted that only 58% of the area have been actually irrigated in that year ( i.e 2000 ) . This low performance implies that all the schemes are not well functioning and need urgent repairs & rectification. The scheme size ranges from 20 ha's to 1,500 ha's of the Meki - Ziway irrigation scheme.
Taking land area actually developed Vs planned command area as performance indicator, the study showed that only 56% of the schemes performed above 50% and 17 schemes were non-functional at the time. Furthermore about 11 shemes were performing above 100% some to up to 250% through extension of canals and irrigating at a rate lower than the irrigation depth and frequency the “modern” projects recommend through use of low stream sizes, long duration and irrigation applications under stress based on their local experiences
On the other hand, therefore, farmers are extending canal networks in some modern irrigation projects and can therefore irrigate more land than is reportedly equipped for irrigation. Therefore, the area under irrigation can be considered more or less similar to the area equipped for irrigation.
Indicative Future Trends
The Recent commitment and enthusiasm towards creation of more potentials for irrigated agriculture is best shown in the PASDEP programme setting out a 5 years I&D Development plan aspiring to bring about 435,000 hectares under irrigation (Table3)
Table 3 : Five Years Irrigation Development Program (2005/06-2010/11) PASDEP, Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty., Program
A.IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR 38 IRRIGATION PROJECTS
(2005/06-2010/11)
Identification study of 6 schemes 177,998 ha
Feasibility study of 5 schemes 84,335 ha
Feasibility+ DD + Construction 22 schemes 315,571 ha
Construction of 5 schemes 119,640ha
Overall Total (Construction) 435,221 hectares
B. ONGOING IRRIGATION PROGRAMS
(2005/07)
1 identification study project 177,998 ha
Feasibility study and detail design of 9 projects covering 252,271 ha
4 construction projects covering 100,340ha
2.2 Categories of irrigation schemes:
In the Ethiopian context, the irrigation sub-sector was conventionally classified as small (less than 200ha), medium (200 to 3000ha) and large-scale (over 3000ha) schemes in the early years of its emergence. It refers only to size of land and ignores the scales of capital, knowledge and technology involved. This customary arrangement was opted for its simplicity ,as then the large scale farms were either private company or public owned and the small scale farms were that of farmers(private or communal). However, that situation is consistently eroding as small scale, high capital, and knowledge intensive farms by private companies emerged; and farmers holdings started to shoot up. Furthermore, the scale of the finance, technology and management which were disguised require attention to determine the optimum coordination and management.
In order to overcome, this lump sum approach and investigate the concealed facts of ownership scale of investment, and knowledge in the oromia region, Ligdi (2003) used an alternative approach which was also very common in other countries and the region. This recommendation was opted for and presented as follows.
Irrigated Agriculture is categorized into 3 major categories (Ligdi, 2003)
1. Communal Small Holder Irrigation Schemes
These small holder schemes are are constructed and developed by self –help or through projects with External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers. They are usually communal and managed by the small holder farmers themselves.
These Communal smallholder schemes Comprise of
a. the traditional communal Irrigation Schemes (usually termed as Traditional Schemes) and;
b. the Improved /”Modern”/ Communal Schemes mostly termed as Modern Small Scale Irrigation Schemes, SSIS
2. Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes
These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by enterpreuners, individual investors (Smallholder farmers), or small or large commercial companies
3. Public Irrigation Schemes
These are mostly medium and large scale schemes developed/nationalized/, owned and managed by the government as commercial farms producing for export to generate foreign currency, create employment opportunities, etc..
Figure : Irrigated land area in the different categories in Ethiopia2...2.1 Communal Small Holder Irrigation Schemes
General (Major) features
These small holder schemes are dominated by self –help irrigation and Water undertakings based solely on local knowledge and skills with no or a very Low External inputs as the case is in traditional irrigation; and also includes the projects developed through External inputs by Governments and NGO’S and Participation of Farmers, and termed as Improved Small scale Irrigation, SSI schemes ,
Both the Traditional and Improved schemes are usually managed by the farmers themselves, through appropriately organized farmers user groups termed as Irrigation Water Users Associations, WUA’S.
Initial costs of small holder irrigation schemes are small, and O&M costs are relatively low.
2.2.1.1 Traditional irrigation schemes:
Specific Features
- These schemes are constructed under self-help program carried out by farmers on their own initiative and and in general each scheme vary from less than 50 to 100 ha.
- The total irrigated area is estimated to be about 138,000 ha and about 572,000 farmers are involved.
- Traditional water committees, locally known as ‘water fathers’, administer the water distribution and coordinate the maintenance activities of the schemes.
- Traditional irrigation is also very common in peri-urban areas, particularly in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, for the production of vegetables for the local market.
- The major drawback of traditional irrigation schemes is related to unstable headworks and faulty systems of irrigation stemming from lack of technology and knowledge.
- Simple and mostly temporary.
- The total area irrigated under traditional irrigation as complied from master plan studies & reports of the regions is estimated to be about 64,000 ha
2.2.1.2 Improved /Modern/ communal irrigation schemes (Generally termed as Modern small-scale irrigation schemes, SSIS)
These schemes use technologies for irrigating up to 200 ha and are constructed by the government/NGOs with farmer participation. (Range- 20 ha to 200 ha)
Specific Features
They are generally based on direct river diversions but they may also involve micro-dams for storage.
Example OROMIA
The Evaluation study (OIDA, 2ooo) also disclosed that rivers are the main water resource for the irrigation schemes in Oromia Region. Out of the 96 schemes, 72 schemes obtain water from rivers. The intake facilities are represented by diversion weirs. Among 96 irrigation schemes, 67 schemes are run-of -river type with diversion weirs, while pumping irrigation is operated to the limited extent.
The area equipped for irrigation in 2002 was about 48 300 ha and about 74 100 farmers were involved.
The operation and maintenance of the schemes are the responsibility of the water users, supported by the regional authorities/bureaus in charge of irrigation development and management.
Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formally established in some schemes but traditional water management dominates in most of the modern schemes.
1.2.2 Private /Commercial/ Irrigation Schemes (Usually termed as Modern private irrigation Schemes):
These schemes are constructed, owned, and managed by entrepreneurs, individual investors (Smallholder farmers),or small or large commercial companies
- Virtually all the early commercial farms in the 1960’s and the irrigated state farms were privately owned farms until nationalization of the rural lands/private property/ through in the mid 1970s.
- Some of these schemes were initially privately owned until later nationalized in coming to power of a socialist government and then returned by back to through privatization after disowning/abandonment
- Private investment in irrigation has recently re-emerged with the adoption of a market-based economy policy in the early 1980s.
- According Ethiopian Investment Authority 18 modern private irrigation projects are now operational.
- Accordingly, at the end of 2000, private investors had developed about 5 500 ha of irrigated farms, distributed in Afar (37 percent), Oromia (48 percent) and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) also known as the Southern Region (15 percent).
- Built and operated by entrepreneurs, these schemes may range in size a few hectares to several thousand hectares,
- Depend on low- lift pumping or run-of river diversion for irrigation water abstraction.
2.2.3. Public Irrigation Schemes
- These schemes comprise medium- and large-scale irrigation schemes with areas of 200-3 000 ha and above 3 000 ha respectively and a total estimated area of about 97 700 ha.
- They are constructed, owned and operated by public enterprises. These schemes are concentrated along the Awash River Course and were constructed in the 1960s-70s as either private farms or joint ventures.
- No such schemes have been developed for the last 7-8 years.
- They constitute an area of about 61,000 ha
- 75% of the total is found in the Awash valley, the Blue Nile and the Wabe Shebele river basins
- Masonry weirs\ in some cases pump is used to abstract irrigation water.
- Conveyance & Operation is through open gravity canals.
- Furrow irrigation scheme is the norm from water application, except in case of Fincaa sugar estate where sprinkler is used.
- Irrigation efficiency is low (Aswash), 40% (adequate land leveling, water control & water measuring devices).
About 62 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Rift Valley, while 29 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Nile basin. The remaining 9 percent is located in the Shebelli-Juba basin.
Region-wise, about 39 percent of the irrigated area is in Oromia in central Ethiopia, followed by 24 percent in Amhara in the north, 15 percent in Afar in the northeast and 12 percent in SNNPR, while the remaining 10 percent is in the other regions. Nearly 100 percent of the irrigated land is supplied from surface water, while groundwater use has just been started on a pilot scale in East Amhara. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2 percent of the irrigated area for sugar cane production by government enterprises, while localized irrigation has recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Pump irrigation by a group of farm households and private farms is practiced in some areas, while human-powered (treadle pump) irrigation has also recently started in the Tigray and Amhara regions. Though quantitative information is not available, spate irrigation and flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country, particularly in Dire Dawa, Somali, East Amhara, and Tigray in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country.
2.3 STATUS AND EVOLUTION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Drainage is as important as irrigation, particularly in the highlands of Ethiopia. However, except in irrigated lands, drainage is not given the required attention in rainfed agriculture where farmers construct traditional drain ditches commonly diagonal to the main slope of the farmlands. Because of irregularity in cross-sections and longitudinal slopes as well as inadequate capacities, the drains are usually converted to gullies if the same drains are adopted year after year. To avoid this happening, drain lines are changed every year. Designs of small-scale irrigation schemes incorporate drainage systems but these are not properly implemented. The typology of the drainage system used in the country is the surface drainage system (gravity drainage). The construction of subsurface drainage systems was started for one large-scale irrigation scheme in the Awash Valley for salinity control, but was discontinued. Separate information on the cost of drainage systems is not available because it is included in the overall development cost of the irrigation system.
Traditional Drainage Agriculture/Recession Agriculture/,
Traditional Drainage agriculture (Recession Agriculture) using surface field drainage ditches in valley bottoms and lowlying areas is adundant in high rainfall areas. Wetlands surrounding water bodies (lakes, rivers, springs,etc..) are also becoming under increased risks of degradation through clearance for opening up new agricultural lands .
Albeit, their appreciable contribution to the overall agricultural production of the locality they are practised in ,and their practice and use in the lean months of the rainfed agriculture; these traditional forms of drainage agriculture are the least studied and supported.
even though the recent agricultural food security packages programme has incorporated them as an activity, their evaluation and understanding remains open for investigation.
3. THE ROLE OF IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA
3.1 General
Both irrigated and rainfed agriculture is important in the Ethiopian economy. Virtually all food crops in Ethiopia come from rainfed agriculture with the irrigation sub-sector accounting for only about 3 percent of the food crops. Export crops such as coffee, oil seed and pulses are also mostly rainfed, but industrial crops such as sugar cane, cotton and fruit are irrigated. Other important irrigated crops include vegetables and fruit trees in medium- and large-scale schemes and maize, wheat, vegetables, potatoes, sweet potatoes and bananas in small-scale schemes. There is a marked value added in irrigated agriculture.
Development costs per hectare of small-scale irrigation schemes are US$ 1760-2940 for direct river diversion schemes and US$ 4700-7100 for schemes requiring micro-dams, while the respective annual operation and maintenance (O&M) costs per hectare are US$ 70-120 and US$ 160-240 respectively. In 1998, development costs for public surface irrigation schemes (large- and medium-scale) were estimated to be in the range of US$ 3300-12800/ha, with the average cost being US$ 8100/ha. This high cost is due to the fact that the construction of expensive head works is included in the calculation. Annual O&M costs for these schemes are US$ 60-220/ha. The cost of sprinkler and localized irrigation installation is about US$ 5160/ha and US$ 5560/ha respectively.
The proportion of traditionally irrigated land (almost half of the total irrigated area) and the number of farmers involved indicate the significant economic and social role of traditional irrigation for rural society. Urban and peri-urban irrigation are not significant in terms of area coverage and production, but the traditional irrigation practice around Addis Ababa plays an important role in supplying vegetables for the Addis Ababa market.
Supplementary irrigation is widely practiced in all irrigation categories, although separate quantitative information on the area supplied with supplementary irrigation is not available. The areas under traditional and small-scale irrigation systems are supplied with full irrigation during dry periods and with supplementary irrigation when the rain comes late or withdraws early, or when there is inadequate rainfall.
Rainfed farming has always been the main livelihood for most Ethiopian people and is supported by traditional water harvesting practices particularly in central-north, eastern and southeastern areas of the country.
3.2. Irrigation & Drainage development; Water resources Management and Sustainable Growth.
The effect of management of water resources (including irrigation development) on the current and future sustainable economic growth of Ethiopia is best explained by Claudia Seddof, a world bank economist in her paper entitled ”Managing Water Resources To Maximise Sustainable Growth –A Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia.”(The World Bank,2005).
The paper focuses on understanding the dynamics of water in economy, (i.e how to manage water to minimise destructive and enhance productive impacts on the economy; and how to manage the economy to minimise the impact of water shocks).
The Paper explains/summarises the challenges of the Ethiopia’s hydro-economy as follows:
Ethiopia’s hydrological variability is extreme and this variability impacts the entire economy whose structure makes it particularly vulnerable to hydrologic variability and the water infrastructure is inadequate to mitigate variability and enable growth.
Economic infrastructure
Figure :Water Infrastructure Development in Ethiopia, (world bank,2005)
Storage infrastructure
Figure: Per capita Storage Capacity of Some Countries. (World Bank, 2003)
Furthermore, in an economy-wide multi-market model for Ethiopia (Standard model for growth and poverty projection) modified to explicitly incorporate hydrology.
The paper concluded that
1. Macro economic models , that fail to take account of hydrological variability, and which are often employed in Ethiopia, fail to show the water’s “ drag ‘ on growth and hence over estimate growth and under estimate poverty and undervalue returns to irrigation as irrigation doesn’t pay well if rainfall is good-
2. Ethiopia does not yet have the minimum plat form of infrastructure, institutions and capacity to reach the tipping point of water security where net impact of water on growth is positive.
In assessing alternative investments, the model showed that
1. Projected returns to irrigation investments increase as variability increase
[taking account of hydrology can more than double returns]
2. Synergies between irrigation and infrastructure investments increases as variability increases
As an insight for intervention the model recommends/ prioritizes, among others, that
Multi-purpose hydraulic infrastructure development/ multi-purpose storage and river regulation facilities [hydropower, irrigation and even roads ] to promote economic resilience as a proposed strategy for the Bank support.
The major insight of the model and the study as a whole were very significant and imperative for the irrigation sub-sector which had been tied up for so long with no visible positive impact on economy.
What is crucial is that this is so in a country where recurrent droughts and famine, and food insecurity claim millions of lives, now and then,, despite the vast unexploited resources and growth opportunities
These fundamental and critical conclusions and recommendations, are summarized as follows:
Growth will be undermined until water security is attained, it will require very large investment to achieve a nation-wide minimum platform of water infrastructure and management capacity
Economic wide models that fail to incorporate hydrological variability will be poor predictors of growth & poverty.
Current structure of the economy & incentives trap farmers in highly vulnerable rain fed subsistence agriculture-[hydrological resilience will require structural change in the economy]
Multipurpose hydraulic/hydropower infrastructure can promote economic resilience both by directly regulating flows and by promoting structural shifts in the economy
Returns to irrigation and Drainage investments are systematically underestimated in models that fail to capture hydrology because returns to irrigation and drainage are highest in times of drought and flood
Multi-purpose Hydraulic infrastructure development (including Multi-purpose storage facilities for I& D) is proposed/recommended as a strategy for maximising sustainable growth in Ethiopia
In summary the study shows that the country’s economy is dependant on hydrological variability and the only way out is to achieve/attain water security through, among others, development of multipurpose water infrastructure which will positively impact the economy and maximise sustainable growth.
Therefore, unless and until the minimum platform for water security is reached, the country’s hydro-economy will continue to be vulnerable, inept and incapable to enable real and sustainable growth.
REFERENCES AND LITERATURE CITED
- Annen, Chris T. 2001. Promotion of Small-Scale Irrigation in Food Insecure Woredas of Ethiopia. Document submitted to the IDA, World Bank.
- Aytenffisu, M. 1981. Groundwater in Ethiopia.
- Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia. 2000/01. Agricultural sample survey, Report on Farm Management Practices of Belg Season Crops.
- FAO. 1990. Irrigation policy and strategy in Ethiopia. Report of FAO Technical Cooperation Project TCP/ETH/8963.
- FAO. 1994a. Studies for integrated irrigation systems - Ethiopia - Project findings and recommendations. Terminal Report of UNDP/FAO project ETH/88/001.
- FAO. 1994b. Ethiopia: Small-scale irrigation consolidation project, Preparation report. FAO/DDC Report 59/94 ADB-ETH 48.
- Ministry of Agriculture. 2001. The Development of Irrigation Agriculture in the Baro-Akob, Awash, Abbay, Omo-Ghibe River Basins. September 2001.
- Ministry of Health, Disease Prevention and Control Department. 2002. AIDS in Ethiopia. Fourth Edition.
- Ministry of Water Resources. 1996. Omo-Gibe Master Plan Studies, Water Resources Studies (main and sectoral reports).
- Ministry of Water Resources. 1997. Baro-Akobo River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies.
- Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan (main and sectoral reports).
- Ministry of Water Resources. 1998. Abbay (Nile) River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Studies (main and sectoral reports).
- Ministry of Water Resources. 2000. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. July 2000.
- Ministry of Water Resources, ITAB Consult PLC. 2001. Implementation Strategy for River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan. August 2001.
- Water Work Design and Supervision Enterprise. 2002. Water Sector Development Program (Project ETH/98/001), Volume II-Main Report. Ministry of Water Resources.
- Sadoff,Claudia (2005).Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth: A Water Resource Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia. A paper presented on Evaluation Workshop at the MoWR, June 23,205,The World Bank
- OIDA (2000).Small holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study.Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA. 2000. Finfinne
- Etafa Emama Ligdi(2000)Discussion paper onSmall holders (Farmers managed) improved SSI schemes Evaluation Study. Paper presented to the Annual Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, OIDA Evaluation Workshop September, 2000. OIDA. Finfinne.
- Etafa Emama Ligdi (2003),Water Harvesting: Highlights on current status and future directions in Oromia. Paper presented to the Workshop on the NGO Operations in Oromia, 17 – 18 July, 2003. OIDA. Finfinne.
- Tesfaye Gizaw,(2004),River basin Institutions :The Ethiopian experience. Working Paper for discussion in Institutional Setup studies of the Ethiopian Nile(Abbay) Basin Project. BRL Inge’nierie-DHV-T&A. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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The study forms the basis and part of the consultancy study on "Strengthening the Ethiopian Commiittee on Irrigation & Drainage, ETCID'' Planned to be supported by IWMI's APPIA project,and the ETCID Secretariat at the MoWR.
The Study Team:
1. Etafa Emama Ligdi -MoWR
2. Fantaw Abegaz - EARO
3. Getaneh Assefa -MoWR
Reference:
The study forms the basis and part of the consultancy study on "Strengthening the Ethiopian Commiittee on Irrigation & Drainage, ETCID'' Planned to be supported by IWMI's APPIA project,and the ETCID Secretariat at the MoWR.
The Study Team:
1. Etafa Emama Ligdi -MoWR
2. Fantaw Abegaz - EARO
3. Getaneh Assefa -MoWR
Reference:
Etafa Emama Ligdi, Fantaw Abegaz, Getaneh Assefa, (2007). Feasibility Study On ”Strengthening The Ethiopian Committee On Irrigation & Drainage, ETCID”:Draft Inception Report, May 14, 2007. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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